In Germany, by contrast, employer organizations and industrial trade associations play a far more strategic role. Such regions often consist of many small, innovative companies tied together in complex business networks.
During the industrialization of Germany in the late-nineteenth century, the region was sparsely populated and comparatively backward. For example, they have formed a network of producers from various industries for sharing the most advanced process and product technologies.
Of course, regional governments in many countries have tried to design public policies that encourage economic development. This allows the regional economy to combine the best of both worlds—the flexibility and innovation of highly specialized small companies with the strategic coordination provided by regional institutions.
Because relationships among the various players in the local economy are highly organized, the system as a whole is able to adjust quickly to new market conditions.
This arrangement is largely a byproduct of German history. This favored the development of a few large banks with broad financial powers. Where banks in the United States are prohibited from equity trading, for example, German banks are free to own stock, sit on boards of directors, and vote large numbers of proxy shares. More recently, however, it has come in for considerable and extensive criticism. Critics maintain that excessively close relationships between banks and companies hinder new forms of financial innovation and block economic change.
They have faulted the large banks for being too slow to raise capital for the introduction of new technologies and for favoring large companies while neglecting the venture capital needs of small, entrepreneurial companies.
As early as the late s, German banks began to reform themselves in anticipation of the s era of economic restructuring. In the traditional house bank model, a company is completely dependent on a single bank for all of its financing needs.
In the network model, by contrast, several banks join together informally to finance entire networks of companies. Representatives of the banks in the network sit on the supervisory board of a particular company. And often managers from one company in the network sit on the board of another company also financed by the same set of banks. In a sense, these networks are the German equivalent of the Japanese keiretsu.
Their fundamental advantage is to give companies in the network more options for financing and much greater flexibility and security in planning their long-term investment needs. With their formal and informal connections to the companies via loans, equity holdings, and board seats, the banks help the small companies to compete far more effectively than any individual company could do on its own.
Soskice argues that these networks allow the German financial system to retain its traditional stability even as it adapts more flexibly to changing economic circumstances. Deregulation caused financial markets to engage in speculation at the expense of long-term investment in industry. By contrast, German banks have resisted the dubious financial deals that characterized the banking systems of the United Kingdom, the United States, and Japan during the s.
Germany has prevailed as a global industrial force because its competitive model, the social market philosophy, results in a remarkably integrated economic system. Manufacturing high-quality products for export depends on the existence of a highly skilled work force. Creating and maintaining that work force depends on extensive apprenticeship, training, and retraining programs.
The nationwide worker-training system functions only because there is close cooperation between the social partners who design and administer the system. And that consensus hinges on the strong position of unions and their participation in joint decision-making forums like the works councils. An important reason organized labor can work so effectively with business is that business has organized itself in employer and industrial associations that speak with a single voice for their members.
Nevertheless, in the s, the German model faces greater challenges than ever before. Three threats loom large:. The domestic strains of German unification. If for important reasons, especially with respect to the scope of the bill, the Federal Government demands an extension, the period shall be increased to nine weeks.
If in exceptional circumstances the Bundesrat declares a bill to be particularly urgent, the period shall be three weeks or, if the Federal Government has demanded an extension pursuant to the third sentence of this paragraph, six weeks. The Bundestag shall consider and vote on bills within a reasonable time. Article 77 [Legislative procedure — Mediation Committee]. After their adoption the President of the Bundestag shall forward them to the Bundesrat without delay.
The composition and proceedings of this committee shall be regulated by rules of procedure adopted by the Bundestag and requiring the consent of the Bundesrat. The members of the Bundesrat on this committee shall not be bound by instructions. When the consent of the Bundesrat is required for a bill to become law, the Bundestag and the Federal Government may likewise demand that such a committee be convened.
Should the committee propose any amendment to the adopted bill, the Bundestag shall vote on it a second time. If the Bundesrat adopted the objection by a majority of at least two thirds of its votes, its rejection by the Bundestag shall require a two-thirds majority, including at least a majority of the Members of the Bundestag. Article 78 [Passage of federal laws]. A bill adopted by the Bundestag shall become law if the Bundesrat consents to it or fails to make a demand pursuant to paragraph 2 of Article 77 or fails to enter an objection within the period stipulated in paragraph 3 of Article 77 or withdraws such an objection or if the objection is overridden by the Bundestag.
Article 79 [Amendment of the Basic Law]. In the case of an international treaty regarding a peace settlement, the preparation of a peace settlement or the phasing out of an occupation regime or designed to promote the defence of the Federal Republic, it shall be sufficient, for the purpose of making clear that the provisions of this Basic Law do not preclude the conclusion and entry into force of the treaty, to add language to the Basic Law that merely makes this clarification.
Article 80 [Issuance of statutory instruments]. The content, purpose and scope of the authority conferred shall be specified in the law. Each statutory instrument shall contain a statement of its legal basis.
If the law provides that such authority may be further delegated, such subdelegation shall be effected by statutory instrument. Article 80a [State of tension]. The determination of a state of tension and specific approval in the cases mentioned in the first sentence of paragraph 5 and the second sentence of paragraph 6 of Article 12a shall require a two-thirds majority of the votes cast.
Any measures taken pursuant to this paragraph shall be rescinded whenever the Bundestag, by the vote of a majority of its Members, so demands.
Article 81 [Legislative emergency]. The same shall apply if a bill has been rejected although the Federal Chancellor had combined it with a motion under Article The same shall apply if the Bundestag does not pass the bill within four weeks after it is reintroduced.
After the expiry of this period, no further declaration of a state of legislative emergency may be made during the term of office of the same Federal Chancellor. Article 82 [Certification — Promulgation — Entry into force]. Statutory instruments shall be certified by the authority that issues them and, unless a law otherwise provides, shall be promulgated in the Federal Law Gazette.
In the absence of such a provision, it shall take effect on the fourteenth day after the day on which the Federal Law Gazette containing it was published.
If a Land has enacted a derogating regulation pursuant to the second sentence, subsequent federal statutory provisions regulating the organisation of authorities and their administrative procedure shall not be enacted until at least six months after their promulgation, provided that no other determination has been made with the consent of the Bundesrat.
The third sentence of paragraph 2 of Article 72 shall apply, mutatis mutandis. In exceptional cases, owing to a special need for uniform federal legislation, the Federation may regulate the administrative procedure with no possibility of separate Land legislation. Such laws shall require the consent of the Bundesrat. Federal laws may not entrust municipalities and associations of municipalities with any tasks.
For this purpose the Federal Government may send commissioners to the highest Land authorities and, with their consent or, where such consent is refused, with the consent of the Bundesrat, also to subordinate authorities. The decision of the Bundesrat may be challenged in the Federal Constitutional Court.
They shall be addressed to the highest Land authorities unless the Federal Government considers the matter urgent. It may provide for the uniform training of civil servants and other salaried public employees.
The heads of intermediate authorities shall be appointed with its approval. Such instructions shall be addressed to the highest Land authorities unless the Federal Government considers the matter urgent.
Implementation of the instructions shall be ensured by the highest Land authorities. For this purpose the Federal Government may require the submission of reports and documents and send commissioners to all authorities. Article 86 [Federal administration]. Where the Federation executes laws through its own administrative authorities or through federal corporations or institutions established under public law, the Federal Government shall, insofar as the law in question makes no special stipulation, issue general administrative provisions.
The Federal Government shall provide for the establishment of the authorities insofar as the law in question does not otherwise provide. A federal law may establish Federal Border Police authorities and central offices for police information and communications, for the criminal police and for the compilation of data for purposes of protection of the constitution and of protection against activities within the federal territory which, through the use of force or acts preparatory to the use of force, endanger the external interests of the Federal Republic of Germany.
When the Federation is confronted with new responsibilities with respect to matters on which it has legislative power, federal authorities at intermediate and lower levels may be established, with the consent of the Bundesrat and of a majority of the Members of the Bundestag, in cases of urgent need. Article 87a [Armed Forces]. Their numerical strength and general organisational structure must be shown in the budget. Moreover, during a state of defence or a state of tension, the Armed Forces may also be authorised to support police measures for the protection of civilian property; in this event the Armed Forces shall cooperate with the competent authorities.
Any such employment of the Armed Forces shall be discontinued if the Bundestag or the Bundesrat so demands. Article 87b [Federal Defence Administration].
It shall have jurisdiction for personnel matters and direct responsibility for satisfaction of the procurement needs of the Armed Forces. Responsibilities connected with pensions for injured persons or with construction work may be assigned to the Federal Defence Administration only by a federal law requiring the consent of the Bundesrat.
Such consent shall also be required for any laws to the extent that they empower the Federal Defence Administration to interfere with rights of third parties; this requirement, however, shall not apply in the case of laws regarding personnel matters. Article 87c [Production and utilisation of nuclear energy]. Article 87d [Air transport administration].
Air traffic control services may also be provided by foreign air traffic control organisations which are authorised in accordance with European Community law. Article 87e [Rail transport administration]. They shall remain the property of the Federation to the extent that their activities embrace the construction, maintenance and operation of the lines.
The transfer of federal shares in these enterprises under the second sentence of this paragraph shall be effected pursuant to a law; the Federation shall retain a majority of the shares. The consent of the Bundesrat shall also be required for laws regarding the dissolution, merger or division of federal railway enterprises, the transfer of federal railway lines to third parties or the abandonment of such lines or affecting local passenger services.
Article 87f [Posts and telecommunications]. Sovereign functions in the area of posts and telecommunications shall be discharged by federal administrative authorities. The Federation shall establish a note-issuing and currency bank as the Federal Bank.
Within the framework of the European Union, its responsibilities and powers may be transferred to the European Central Bank, which is independent and committed to the overriding goal of assuring price stability.
Article 89 [Federal waterways — Administration of waterways]. It shall exercise those state functions relating to inland shipping which extend beyond the territory of a single Land , and those functions relating to maritime shipping, which are conferred on it by a law.
Insofar as federal waterways lie within the territory of a single Land , the Federation on its application may delegate their administration to that Land on federal commission. Article 90 [Federal roads and motorways]. This ownership shall be inalienable. The Federation may make use of a company under private law to discharge its responsibilities. This company shall be in the inalienable ownership of the Federation.
Third parties shall have no direct or indirect holding in the company and its subsidiaries. Third parties shall have no holdings in the framework of public-private partnerships in road networks comprising the entire federal motorway network or the entire network of other federal trunk roads in a Land or significant parts of these networks. Article 91 [Internal emergency]. Any such order shall be rescinded once the danger is removed or at any time on the demand of the Bundesrat. If the danger extends beyond the territory of a single Land , the Federal Government, insofar as is necessary to combat such danger, may issue instructions to the Land governments; the first and second sentences of this paragraph shall not be affected by this provision.
Article 91a [Joint tasks — Responsibility for expenditure]. Details shall be regulated by law. Article 91b [Education programmes and promotion of research].
This provision shall not apply to agreements regarding the construction of research facilities, including large scientific installations. Article 91c [Information technology systems]. The agreements shall also regulate the sharing of costs. Details regarding the establishment and the operation of the connection network shall be regulated by a federal law with the consent of the Bundesrat.
Article 91d [Comparison of performance]. Article 91e [Cooperation in respect of basic support for persons seeking employment]. In this case, the Federation shall bear the necessary expenditures including the administrative expenses for the tasks which are to be discharged by the Federation in the execution of laws pursuant to paragraph 1.
Article 92 [Court organisation]. Article 93 [Jurisdiction of the Federal Constitutional Court]. A request under the first sentence is admissible only if a bill falling under paragraph 4 of Article 72 or the second sentence of paragraph 2 of Article a has been rejected by the German Bundestag or if it has not been considered and determined upon within one year or if a similar bill has been rejected by the Bundesrat.
Article 94 [Composition of the Federal Constitutional Court]. Half the members of the Federal Constitutional Court shall be elected by the Bundestag and half by the Bundesrat. They may not be members of the Bundestag, of the Bundesrat, of the Federal Government or of any of the corresponding bodies of a Land. The law may require that all other legal remedies be exhausted before a constitutional complaint may be filed and may provide for a separate proceeding to determine whether the complaint will be accepted for adjudication.
Article 95 [Supreme federal courts]. Article 96 [Other federal courts]. These courts may exercise criminal jurisdiction only during a state of defence or over members of the Armed Forces serving abroad or on board warships. These courts shall be under the aegis of the Federal Minister of Justice. The judges officiating there as their primary occupation shall be persons qualified to hold judicial office. Article 97 [Judicial independence]. The legislature may set age limits for the retirement of judges appointed for life.
In the event of changes in the structure of courts or in their districts, judges may be transferred to another court or removed from office, provided they retain their full salary. Article 98 [Legal status of judges — Impeachment]. In the case of an intentional infringement it may order his dismissal.
Existing Land constitutional law shall not be affected. The decision in cases of judicial impeachment shall rest with the Federal Constitutional Court. Article 99 [Constitutional disputes within a Land ]. A Land law may assign the adjudication of constitutional disputes within a Land to the Federal Constitutional Court and the final decision in matters involving the application of Land law to the supreme courts specified in paragraph 1 of Article Article [Concrete judicial review].
This provision shall also apply where the Basic Law is held to be violated by Land law and where a Land law is held to be incompatible with a federal law. Article [Ban on extraordinary courts].
No one may be removed from the jurisdiction of his lawful judge. Article [Abolition of capital punishment]. Article [Deprivation of liberty].
Persons in custody may not be subjected to mental or physical mistreatment. If such a deprivation is not based on a judicial order, a judicial decision shall be obtained without delay. The police may hold no one in custody on their own authority beyond the end of the day following that of the arrest. The judge shall, without delay, either issue a written arrest warrant setting forth the reasons therefor or order his release.
Article a [Apportionment of expenditures — Financial system — Liability]. For the granting of benefits for accommodation and heating in the field of basic support for persons seeking employment, the law shall be executed on federal commission if the Federation finances three quarters or more of the expenditure.
Details shall be regulated by a federal law requiring the consent of the Bundesrat. Article b [Financial assistance for investments]. The federal law or executive agreement may contain provisions on the shaping of the respective Land programmes for the use of the financial assistance. To ensure that the funds are used for their intended purpose, the Federal Government may require the submission of reports and documents and conduct surveys of any authorities. The duration of the grants shall be limited, and the grants must be reviewed at regular intervals with respect to the manner in which they are used.
The financial assistance must be designed with descending annual contributions. Article c [Financial assistance for investments in municipal education infrastructure]. The first three sentences and the fifth and sixth sentences of paragraph 2 , as well as paragraph 3 of Article b, shall apply , mutatis mutandis.
To ensure that the funds are used for their intended purpose, the Federal Government may require the submission of reports and, where circumstances so warrant, documents. Article d [Financial assistance for investments in social housing]. The first five sentences of paragraph 2 , as well as paragraph 3 of Article b, shall apply, mutatis mutandis.
Article [Distribution of powers regarding tax laws]. It shall have concurrent power to legislate with respect to all other taxes the revenue from which accrues to it wholly or in part or as to which the conditions provided for in paragraph 2 of Article 72 apply.
They are empowered to determine the rate of the tax on acquisition of real estate. Article [Apportionment of tax revenue and yield of fiscal monopolies]. Such determination shall be based on the following principles:. The extent of such expenditures shall be determined with due regard to multi-year financial planning.
Details shall be regulated by the federal law enacted pursuant to the third sentence of this paragraph. For much of his career, Kentler spoke of pedophiles as benefactors. But in he seemed to rethink his opinion, after his youngest adopted son, the one he praised in the letter to Schmidt, committed suicide.
The paper describes how sexualized relationships between adults and children are always asymmetrical, exploitative, and destructive. Then I looked him up online and saw that he had received a Ph. I spoke with them via Zoom. Marco and Schweer sat in chairs beside the bed, and they did not appear to have a particularly familiar rapport.
Marco wore a flowery button-up Hawaiian shirt and had not shaved in a few days. Schweer, dressed for the office, had a prim, businesslike manner. Like an agent helping his celebrity client, he seemed a bit bored by our conversation but occasionally chimed in, prompting Marco to share memorable details.
He explained that Kentler, too, had this trait. Schweer demonstrated by pressing his mouth together, so that only a sliver of his bottom and upper lip were visible. History seemed to be looping back on itself.
Two politicians from the Green Party, which has championed the rights of sexual minorities, accused the AfD of manipulating the victims. Schweer, the AfD adviser, tried to find a lawyer who could advocate for Marco in a civil lawsuit.
Marco had already filed a criminal complaint, but the investigation was limited because Henkel had died in The lead caseworker, who retired after working for the office for more than forty years, exercised his right to remain silent when the police contacted him. Kentler, who was at the time a very renowned person. But, under civil law, too much time had passed.
The AfD asked an expert to analyze whether the statute of limitations had to apply to this case. She believed that the AfD was giving them bad advice, unnecessarily prolonging their attempt to get money. Of course, it is O. The house, which had only one room, was made from beige bricks and seemed to have been assembled too casually—uneven globs of mortar filled each crack. In photographs from the nineties, the place is a mess: a plastic bag and half-eaten bread lie on the table; outside the house, an old toaster oven, with a badminton birdie lying next to it, rests on a decaying dresser.
Samir, who is fifty-seven and half Algerian, had not had contact with his birth family for more than forty years. He had changed his last name to Henkel, and taken on a new German first name as well. His half sister, who lives in Algeria, told me that she and her sister had tried many times to get in touch with him, to no avail.
He was the foster son whose interactions with Henkel sparked a criminal investigation in , when he was fifteen. Five-foot hedges now surrounded it. The windows were covered with blankets. He walked back to his car and drove home. There was barely even clear space to walk.
Yet one corner of the house was tidy and purposeful. It had been turned into a kind of altar. Henkel had run his foster home for thirty years. He had nowhere to live. He spent three nights sleeping on benches in the park. With the help of a charity that assists homeless youths, he eventually moved into a subsidized apartment. He sometimes stole from grocery stores. Sven lived alone in a small apartment in Berlin, too, but, unlike Marco, he stayed in touch with Henkel.
Marco and Sven lived as they had as adolescents: they spent the day on the computer or watching TV, rarely speaking to anyone. Marco had also existed in a kind of hibernation. Without making a conscious decision, Marco found himself beating them up.
I noticed I actually wanted to kill them. Marco realized how much his behavior resembled that of his foster father. I was turning into the thing he had made. The photographs never led to jobs, but he began hanging out with the photographer and her friends.
Connect and share knowledge within a single location that is structured and easy to search. This means we read the first two digits as a single number and then the next two digits, with the same rule. In German generally i. PS: The English style of pronouncing years is also used occasionally as it is shorter, but it's only borderline correct. Sign up to join this community. The best answers are voted up and rise to the top.
Stack Overflow for Teams — Collaborate and share knowledge with a private group. Create a free Team What is Teams? Learn more. How to read years in German? Ask Question.
0コメント