However, animals cannot make all 22 of these amino acids in their body. Amino acids that cannot be synthesised by the animal, and therefore must be supplied in the diet, are classified as "essential". Amino acids that can be synthesised by the animal are termed "non-essential" and do not have to be added to the diet. A protein that does not contain the proper amount of a required essential amino acid would be considered an imbalanced protein and would have a lower nutritional value.
The amino acid present in the least amount relative to the animal's requirement for that particular amino acid is referred to as the "limiting" amino acid. The amino acid profile of fishmeal is what makes this feed ingredient so attractive as a protein supplement Table 3. Proteins in cereal grains and other plant concentrates do not contain complete amino acid profiles and usually are deficient in the essential amino acids lysine and methionine.
Soybean and other legume meals, which are widely used in the diets of most farm animals such as pigs and chickens, are a good source of lysine and tryptophan but are limiting in the sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cystine. An animal's requirement for a limiting amino acid can be met by simply adding more of the protein. However, this would be very costly, and the excess nitrogen in the protein would deleteriously affect water quality.
Excess nitrogen arising from the amino acids of proteins is excreted from the fish into the water in the form of ammonia. Ammonia is toxic to fish and must be removed from the water by filtration or water flushing. The quality of different feedstuffs is greatly dependant on the amino acid profile in their proteins, digestibility of the proteins, freshness of the raw materials, and their storage.
Plant-based proteins, even when properly processed, are usually not as digestible as fishmeal; and their inclusion rate into the diet is often limited as it results in depressed growth rates and feed intake. Over-all protein digestibility values for fishmeal are consistently above 95 percent. In comparison protein digestibility for many plant-based proteins varies greatly, for example, from 77 percent to 96 percent, depending on the species of plant. The structural nature of plants is totally different from that of animals.
Proteins isolated from plants are associated with indigestible non-structural carbohydrates oligosaccharides and structural fibre components cellulose , which are not associated with animal proteins. It is the presence of these components which are thought to be contributing obstacles to efficient utilisation of proteins in many economically plant-based feedstuffs.
The lack of nutritional inhibitors or anti-nutritional factors in fishmeal also makes this meal more attractive than plant proteins for use in aquaculture diets. Anti-nutritional factors are compounds that interfere with nutrient digestion, uptake, or metabolism and can also be toxic. For example, a naturally occurring anti-nutritional factor in uncooked soybeans is the Kunitz trypsin-inhibitor that prevents the enzyme trypsin from breaking down dietary proteins in the intestine of animals.
Lathyrogens in chickpeas also disrupt collagen formation. Collagen is the most abundant protein present in animals, making up most connective tissue and providing structural support. Thiaminases found in raw fish are known to destroy thiamine vitamin B1 , and the avidin in egg white binds biotin another water-soluble vitamin of the B-complex.
Another very important reason why fishmeal is sought after as an ingredient in aquaculture diets is because fishmeal contains certain compounds that make the feed more acceptable and agreeable to the taste palatable. This property allows for the feed to be ingested rapidly, and will reduce nutrient leaching. It is thought the non-essential amino acid glutamic acid is one of the compounds that imparts to fishmeal its palatability. Lipid content in fishmeal Table 3.
Percentage of crude protein in the meal in parenthesis. Essential Amino Acid FM The lipids in fishes can be separated into liquid fish oils and solid fats. Although most of the oil usually gets extracted during processing of the fishmeal, the remaining lipid typically represents between 6 percent and 10 percent by weight but can range from 4 percent to 20 percent. Fish lipids are highly digestible by all species of animals and are excellent sources of the essential polyunsaturated fatty acids PUFA in both the omega-3 and omega-6 families of fatty acids.
The predominant omega-3 fatty acids in fishmeal and fish oil are linolenic acid, docosahexaenoic acid DHA , and eicosapentaenoic acid EPA. Both DHA and EPA fatty acids are produced and passed along the food chain by small-size algae and zooplankton, which are consumed by fish. Fishmeal and oil contain more omega-3, than omega-6 fatty acids.
In contrast, most plant lipids contain higher concentrations of omega-6 fatty acids. For example, oil extracted from soybeans, corn, or cottonseed is rich in linoleic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid. Some oils, like those from canola and flax seeds contain linolenic acid of the omega-3 family , however, its conversion into essential DHA and EPA by most animals may be limited. The beneficial effects of lipids in fish diets are particularly evident in structure and function of cell membranes.
The cell membrane is a semi-permeable and flexible layer that encloses each cell in animals and controls the passage of nutrients and other substances in and out of the cell interior. The cell membrane protects the cell and is composed primarily of lipids, proteins, and some carbohydrates. Because of their fatty acid composition, lipids permit cell membranes to maintain their fluidity in decreasing or increasing water temperatures and cushion cells from the dramatic pressure changes that fish encounter at varying depths in the water column.
Essential fatty acids are necessary for normal larval development, fish growth, and reproduction. They are important in normal development of the skin, nervous system, brain, and visual acuity. PUFAs appear to assist the immune system in defense of disease agents and reduce the stress response. Fishmeal also contains valuable phospholipids, fat-soluble vitamins, and steroid hormones.
Energy in fishmeal The lipids in fishmeal not only impart an excellent profile of essential fatty acids but also provide a high content of energy to the diet. Since there is very little carbohydrate in fishmeal, the energy content of fishmeal relates directly to the percentage of protein and oil it contains. The quantity and quality of oil in fishmeal will in turn depend on the species, physiology, sex, reproductive status, age, feeding habits of the captured fish, and the method of processing.
The lipids in fishmeal and fish oil are easily digested by all animals, especially fish, shrimp, poultry, pigs, and ruminants such as cows, sheep, and goats.
In these animals the lipid digestibility is 90 percent or greater. The high digestibility of fish lipids means they can provide lots of usable energy. If a diet does not provide enough energy, the fish or shrimp will have to break down valuable protein for energy, which is expensive and can increase production of toxic ammonia. Good quality fishmeal contains antioxidants or compounds that reduce the possibility of damage from highly reactive toxic substances which are continually produced at the molecular level in animal cells.
For example, lipids especially PUFAs, are easily damaged and become rancid when exposed to oxygen, a process known as oxidation and one that releases heat. The use of antioxidants in the preservation of fishmeal is essential in order to stabilise its energy value because there are high quantities of PUFAs present in the oil. Without stabilising fishmeal with antioxidants the available energy content of the meal may be reduced by as much as 20 percent; the oxygen will modify damage the chemical structure of the PUFAs and therefore less energy is available to the animal.
Prior to the development and use of antioxidants by the fishmeal industry, it was common practice to turn piles of processed meal in order to dissipate the heat arising from oxidation. Occasionally, fishmeal would ignite spontaneously and cause fires while being shipped or stored.
Historically, it was known that ships sank at sea due to fires caused by spontaneous combustion of the fishmeal they were transporting.
Today, antioxidants added to fishmeal prevent such catastrophes. Mineral and vitamin value of fishmeal When a sample of feed is taken to the laboratory and analysed for nutrient content, the procedure involves burning a portion of the sample. Ash is the material remaining after the feed sample is completely burned.
Normally, the ash content of good quality fishmeal averages between 17 percent and 25 percent. More ash indicates a higher mineral content, especially calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium.
Calcium and phosphorus constitute the majority of the ash found in fishmeal. Unlike the phosphorus in plants, phosphorus in fishmeal is in a form highly available to most animals. The phosphorus in plants is not as readily available to monogastric animals having a one-compartment stomach like pigs, dogs, and humans because it is primarily in the organic form known as phytate.
Ruminants such as cows, sheep, and goats are able to utilize phosphorus in phytate due to the microbial population in their rumen, which is one of the four compartments in the stomach of ruminants. The vitamin content of fishmeal is highly variable and influenced by several factors, such as origin and composition of the fish, meal processing method, and product freshness.
The content of fat-soluble vitamins in fishmeal is relatively low because of their removal during extraction of the oil.
Fishmeal is considered to be a moderately rich source of vitamins of the B-complex especially cobalamine B12 , niacin, choline, pantothenic acid, and riboflavin. Because of its nutrient content, high digestibility and palatability, fishmeal serves as the benchmark ingredient in aquaculture diets. The majority of fishmeal produced is incorporated into commercial diets fed to fish, shrimp, swine, poultry, dairy cattle, and other animals such as mink Table 4. It is unlikely that supplies of commercially available fishmeal and oil will be able to keep pace with the projected increase in worldwide production of aquaculture and terrestrial animal feeds.
In most recent years, aquaculture has used approximately 46 percent of the total annual fishmeal production, a figure that is expected to rise as demand for aquaculture products increases in the next decade.
Optimal use of fishmeal in practical aquaculture diets is necessary to minimise feeding costs which can account for 40 percent or more of operating expenses. The concentration of high-quality nutrients, especially protein, makes fishmeal one of the most sought and expensive feedstuffs. Unfortunately, the specific dietary requirements for energy, essential amino acids, fatty acids, and other nutrients are not yet known for many aquaculture species.
Also, the digestibility of different feedstuffs has not yet been established for many of the commercially important fish species. Therefore, there has been a reluctance to diminish the total amount of fishmeal used in many of the different aquaculture diets.
Simply, over-supplementing the diet with high-quality fishmeal is an easy and very successful way of overcoming lack of knowledge about aquaculture diets in relation to specific nutrient requirements and digestibility of feedstuffs. The best approach in feed formulation is to use high-quality feedstuffs to manufacture a diet that meets the nutritional and energy requirements of the aquaculture species in question.
Fishmeal contains the profile of amino acids that most closely meets the amino acid requirements of fish. If a portion or all of the fishmeal in a diet can be replaced successfully with other high-quality protein sources, doing so will contribute greatly towards protecting the surrounding environment and promoting a sustainable aquaculture industry. New information on nutrient requirements of aquatic organisms coupled with advances in feed technology indicates that species-specific fish diets can be made by partial or total replacement of fishmeal with other plant and animal proteins.
All-plant protein-based diets containing soybean meal, cottonseed meal, and middlings from corn and wheat, supplemented with lysine and methionine, have been used successfully to grow juvenile catfish, carp, and tilapia to market size. However, larvae and young fish still require fishmeal to grow at an optimal rate. Animal proteins and fats, by-products of the animal-rendering industry, can be used in aquaculture diets because they also provide essential amino acids and fatty acids.
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